What I have learnt over the years
It is said that the best battle plans go completely out of the window when the first bullet is fired and certainly I have seen the medical equivalent.
Another area, apart from the pre-injury team organisation, is the necessity to ensure that the care and equipment are updated as the recognised standards change. In the training scenarios it is also good to remember that it might be the lead doctor that gets the injury!
Of course, all casualty treatment starts with ABC which is fine for an ‘in-house’ cardiac arrest. But let’s start with ‘S’ for Safety First.
We need to consider whether the engineer has collapsed due to a build up of noxious gases that could harm us. Or is there a risk of other dangers such as falling debris, floor instability or electrical hazards? Then perhaps we also include haemorrhage control of any obvious heavy external haemorrhage and need to apply a clean dressing and pressure.
There may be internal haemorrhage from an object that has penetrated (such as a piece of railing etc). Ensure that the piece is somehow secured so it cannot penetrate further (I’d suggest a gate clamp or whatever you have to hand) Don’t ever try to remove a penetrating object!
We would always assume that the unconscious trauma victim has a fractured cervical spine injury until proven otherwise. So now let’s add ‘with cervical spine immobilisation’ to our A for Airway.
My immediate consideration, that parallels the mantra, is the fact that the unconscious patient is just about to vomit. If the airway is clear, move swiftly onto B for Breathing. If not, it’s worth remembering that any manoeuvres in the mouth may induce vomiting so be prepared on every level! Open the mouth and use a pen-torch to look inside.
The pen-torch has a larger diameter than the suction tubing, so if the patient clenches their teeth during an epileptic seizure they won’t be biting the end off the suction tube (or your finger if you’ve left it in the wrong place!). Remember to only suck under direct vision and only to suck on the way out. This is also a chance to view the posterior pharyngeal wall (back of the throat). If it is swollen or bruised it may represent a high cervical injury such as an odontoid peg fracture.
If there are dentures and or other prosthetics visible and they are firmly in place, leave them there. A naso-pharyngeal airway (NPA) is better tolerated than an oropharyngeal airway (OPA) and less likely to initiate a gag reflex (remember that risk of vomiting!).
The consideration of a skull base fracture is a relative and not an absolute contra-indication. If the patient tolerates an oro-pharyngeal airway readily, then either they are in a deep coma or the airway is too small. If there is now manual in-line spinal immobilisation, how are we to manage vomiting? Suction may be possible, but are we prepared to do either a 4, 3, or 2 man log roll to avoid aspiration of gastric contents? Even a one man roll may be necessary. It’s not ideal but may be the only option to avoid aspiration in a confined space.
These scenarios must be rehearsed.
Prompt spinal immobilisation will enable the spinal board to be fully tilted by one person kneeling at the side and rotating the board away from them should vomiting occur. Training sessions that focus on the immediate management of the unconscious patient in a variety of awkward positions, will focus on a team approach as members are designated specific roles.
This begins with time dedicated to familiarity with all equipment, where to find these pieces in the kit bag and how to assemble them. For instance, flat packed cervical collars can be a source of confusion to the novice. The well-established spinal board can be used as a ‘sledge’ to slide the patient into a more accessible area.
Remember to secure the chest straps first, followed by the pelvis, so that if vomiting starts early, the heaviest part is secure and the head can simply be held while the board is rotated. Position your tallest responder opposite the smallest and tallest next to smallest. It sounds complicated, but basically the tallest are diagonally opposite.
The team should train in terms of recognising the optimum way to lift a spine board from the round and how to allocate members based on individual height. The patient should be removed from the spinal board as soon as practical (after ABCDE) and managed in a vacuum extraction immobilisation bag. This will not only prevent pressure sores but will also prevent hypothermia whilst awaiting transfer to definitive care.
So where are we now?
The airway is clear and we apply oxygen (but check if it is a safe environment to put on 100% oxygen?), preferably with the use of an oxygen saturation monitor (SpO2). Aim for lower than optimal saturation if the patient has COPD (where 88-92% is considered appropriate in a patient with COPD). Ensure a trauma mask has its rebreathing bag filled before application.
Moving down. Check the trachea is central. But here we have to check the collar again. Even relatively light pressure on the jugular veins can elevate the intracranial pressure - which is a bad thing. Certainly I have treated patients in whom the medical attendants have applied a collar that is a bit on the small side, with the collar subsequently acting as a ‘neck warmer’ rather than an immobiliser. The consequence is raised intracranial pressure. The mistake can arise when sizing a collar, as the collar immobilises the neck by anchoring on the chin superiorly (at the top) and the trapezius muscle inferiorly (at the bottom). So the collar size is measured accordingly. One common mistake is a measurement taken on from the angle of the mandible. The collar won’t fit and subsequently a collar that is much too small is applied in error simply because it was easier and looks effective.
Moving on to the chest and full exposure.
Look, feel, listen seems straightforward enough. However make sure you also look at the abdomen. If there is paradoxical breathing (on inspiration the abdomen goes out rather than in and the chest doesn’t expand), there may be a lower cervical spinal fracture. In this scenario, the patient has paralysis of every muscle below the fracture (including the intercostal muscles) except the innervation to the diaphragm, via the phrenic nerve, which originates above the fracture level (the cervical vertebrae numbers 3, 4 and 5). If there is a fracture above that level the patient will not be breathing at all.
There will be signs of neurogenic shock. This can be seen on occasions when the sympathetic nerve fibres below the fracture are not working and the parasympathetic fibres are unopposed. This means the patient will be very warm below the level of the fracture but also the skin will be very dry. There will be a level of temperature contrast which can be felt on the chest wall. Below the level of fracture the skin will be hot and dry and above the level the skin will be much cooler and very sweaty (clammy). Sometimes an actual line of sweat can be seen circling the chest. There will be associated low blood pressure and bradycardia (slow heart rate).
The patient is unconscious so you will not be able to discern spinal shock easily. Sucking penetrating wounds need a three-sided adhesive dressing and thoracic decompression (tube) may be required if a tension pneumothorax is suspected when you assess for hyper-resonance on percussion, diminished air entry and a possible deviated trachea. The chest examination is not over until the back is examined (looking for step fractures, penetrating wounds, etc) and this is where, when immobilising the patient initially on the spinal board, we leapt a step out of sequence and examined the back as we log rolled onto the spinal board.
Then it’s back to the start and if there are no changes (A, B) we get onto C - circulation.
If possible we would use a wide bore cannula, ideally more than one. There is significant emphasis on intraosseous delivery (drilling into the bone) rather than intravenous for initial fluid therapy and indeed there are some areas of the world where it is the first line of fluid replacement. Warm fluids are best and we ensure urinary output is measured (via a catheter) to assess organ perfusion - how well the blood, with its oxygen and glucose, is circulating to the organs.
Splinting long bone fractures is part of haemorrhage control. There are lots of different splinting devices to re-align fractures and here again, familiarity from training sessions pays dividends. Practice makes perfect!
Fire is a serious ship hazard and as such burns victims may certainly need significant fluid volume replacement before the helicopter arrives. Tourniquets can be life savers but must be frequently revisited to ensure one problem has not been changed for another. Scalp lacerations are common and can be extensive with significant haemorrhage. But pressure bandages can be difficult to keep in place on heads. I’ve found that large sutures tied tightly are the best primary management to stop haemorrhage even over depressed fracture. If bone is missing, then put saline soaked gauze over the wound and suture around the skin edges if there is a partial avulsion (torn off skin) of the scalp.
When you are handing over to either another crew member or a medical professional, such as a helicopter crew, there are a number of acronyms that are useful and rather universal to aid completeness.
SBARD
Situation
Background
Assessment
Recommendations
Decisions
In other words you have assessed and treated the patient and are now conferring regarding the decisions made, ready for the next line of care.
SAMPLE
Signs and Symptoms
Allergies
Medications
Past Medical History
Last Eaten
Useful for a medical (rather than trauma) handover to cover other aspects that may be pertinent.
RSVP
Reason (Injury is usually the reason and this is basically the nature of it)
Story (History so far)
Vitals (BP etc)
Plans (extrication)
MIST
Mechanism
Injuries
Symptoms and Signs
Treatment(s)
Similar to SBARD. This is my personal preference really.
Note from the Red Square Medical team - we love this one too, and normally add AT at the beginning to make it ATMIST. So starting with the patients AGE and gender, then the TIME of the incident.
We hope you’ve enjoyed this insight into John’s advice for treating onboard and what we’ve taken from it is the need for familiarity with kit, with the crew onboard, and to carry out regular drills to make sure everyone knows their role and how to work together in the best interest of the patient.